Local Community Knowledge of Forest Tree Regeneration Techniques and Sustainable Forest Management: 

A Case Study of Kinango Constituency, Kwale County

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

SAHIBU NYANJE BATSO

MAY 2023

ABSTRACT

Forests are a vital resource for many rural communities in Kenya, providing important ecosystem services such as clean water, air, and climate regulation. However, over the years, forest resources have been over-exploited, leading to severe degradation and loss of forest cover. This study aimed to assess the local community's knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County. The study utilized a mixed-methods approach, including surveys and focus group discussions. Results showed that the local community has extensive knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management practices. They use traditional knowledge to select and propagate tree species, maintain soil fertility, and control pests and diseases. However, they face several challenges, including limited access to land, lack of financial support, and inadequate government support for community forestry initiatives. The study recommends strengthening community-based forest management, promoting sustainable forest management practices, and providing incentives for forest conservation. The findings of this study can inform policymakers, forest managers, and communities on the importance of community involvement in forest management and the need to integrate traditional knowledge with modern forest management techniques for sustainable forest management.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of the Study

Forest ecosystems cover 31% of the global land area. An approximate half of the forest area is relatively intact, and more than a third is primary forest (FAO 2021). Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, significantly contributing to the ongoing loss of biodiversity. Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forests have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although there has been a positive decrease in the rate of deforestation over the past three decades (IUCN 2019 a). 

Kenya lost 25% (824,115 hectares) - a rate of 33,000ha forest loss per year – between 1990 and 2015 (WWF Kenya 2009). This translates to losing forest cover equaling size of 100 football pitches, or over 200,000 tree stamps daily. In Kenya, gazetted forests represent less than 2.5% of total land area. The country has about 37.6 million ha of natural woody vegetation outside forests, consisting 24.8 million ha of bush land, 10.8 million ha of wooded grassland and 2.1 million ha of woodland. A further 9.54 million ha of woody vegetation found on farmlands and in settlements (Kenya Forest Department, 2001). Through recent estimates from the basis on remote sensing, study indicates that Kenya’s forest-cover now stands at a critical 1.7% (UNEP, 2001). This is against the minimum international recommended forest cover of 10%. 

The Kwale County region is located in the lower southern part of the coastal region, and borders Tanzania. With an area cover of 8,270km2, it has an area population of 866,220 as of the official census in 2019. About 24,752 ha of its forest land is protected (WWF, 2021), with the conspicuous presence of Shimba Hills being the lone forest block and the biggest, standing at 91,078ha (KWTA, 2019). Most forest lands in Kwale County are notably small and fragmented, but they serve as a critical important natural resource to the country’s GDP particularly through tourism. They are also vital water catchment areas for the streams and rivers running through the County, examples being River Marere, River Mkurumudzi (KEFRI, 1995). Despite their importance, and diversity for survival of plant and animals, these forests are under great pressure from the surrounding population, which is steadily increasing each decade (Temu and Ogweno, 2007). The majority of the population living below the poverty line are highly dependent on the forest resources for their livelihoods.

Deforestation due to agriculture is a major cause of depletion of forested lands in Kwale County. Thirty-three percent of agriculture-caused deforestation is a consequence of subsistence agriculture – a major activity in the County (FAO, 2009). Livestock keeping in Kwale is also a major cause of deforestation and land degradation due to excess grazing. The causes of deforestation due to construction of infrastructure, especially in the transport and mining sectors have greatly increased. The exploration of Base Titanium; in as much as it has rolled out compensation for harming of trees on the forested land areas under use, the industrial process has led to loss of a substantial area cover under forests. The construction of new roads, in the vast constituencies of Kinango, Samburu-Chengoni and the Ndavaya Road has led to the clearance of trees along privately- owned land, even though there was a compensation plan rolled out. Therefore, this proposed research intends to investigate the factors that influence forest-adjacent community use of forest in order to identify more sustainable forest management strategies. 

1.1 Statement of the Problem

There is growing evidence of serious depletion of forests ecosystems in regions such as Ndavaya Ward and Kinango Constituency in Kwale County. This is because the local communities are highly dependent on forest resources such as timber and charcoal, in addition clearing land for agriculture. It is suspected that the unsustainable use of the forests is related to a lack of understanding of the requisite tree regeneration techniques for the renewal of the tree resources. Knowledge on the appropriate tree regeneration methods especially for indigenous species (either deciduous or evergreen) has diminished in recent years. The state of local community knowledge on individual regeneration techniques for important indigenous tree species is uncertain. A lack of widespread knowledge is likely to lead to disengagement of the people from contributing to the necessary tree planting and tending activities. An understanding of the state of knowledge of the local community is necessary to inform capacity-building efforts necessary for more sustainable forest management.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

This study has the following objectives: 

1) To describe the characteristics of the important indigenous tree species utilized by the local community. 

2) To determine the individual and group characteristics of the indigenous tree species users. 

3) To examine factors that drive local community willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management.

4) To determine the level of local community knowledge about tree regeneration techniques. 

1.3 Research Questions

In trying to understand how perception influences forest management and conservation, the study attempts to answer the following

questions:

1) What importance do the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community pose?

2) What individual and group characteristics do indigenous tree species users possess?

3) Which factors drive the local community members willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management?

4) Do the local community members have knowledge about tree regeneration techniques?

1.4 Significance of the Study

1. To provide formal education to local community members on food security and how forests directly influence it. 

2. To assist in the development of forest policies which can specifically target local community members in areas of high forest use and valuation. 

3. To deliberately accelerate commitments of legal recognition of community-based forest management. 

4. To facilitate government forest management and conservation processes by pointing out areas where forest dependence is highest.

 1.5 Theoretical Framework

The study of forests as commons has been one of the central sources of stimulus to the development of scholarship on common property. The importance of forests in relation to two of the most important global environmental threats - climate change, and biodiversity loss - is hard to overstate. The statistics about forests are important to convey their immense significance for the survival of humanity as a species. It has been other benefits from forests that have been of greater interest to common property scholars - the immediate relevance of forests to the livelihoods of hundreds of rural residents. There are therefore avenues of research that can be explored with advances of new data, theories and methods of conservation.

1.6 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework that explains this study of forests boils down to the perception of the members of the community living around forests and forest ecosystems. The rate at which forests and trees in general are showing a gradual decrease is concerning as this pushes the region to an ecological tipping point. The change in perception has suddenly “flipped” to harming the natural existence of forested areas, from that of being an important resource both culturally and environmentally. This perception therefore influences people to harness the forest ecosystems sustainably or unsustainably. 

In utilizing the forest ecosystems either sustainably or unsustainably, the aspects of economic, socio-cultural and ecological significance are explored. This then will determine the efforts for their management and conservation.

Economically, human actions that impact forests include settlement, industrial activities, agricultural practices being the major one, and commercial activities for financial gains. On the socio-cultural aspect, there is an array of activities where communal grazing is a major example. The forest resources are shared equally among members of the community who possess livestock (no man’s land). While this is viewed to favour every household, it can equally be unsustainable due to over exploitation. The ecological contribution of the forest ecosystem is mainly in relation to tourism and recreation. These sacred forest ecosystems have attracted research both locally and internationally, providing masses with education. They are also micro-climate regions, controlling the immediate climate of the surrounding areas.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

Many developing countries world over continue to face the challenge of how best to manage and conserve their forests. Management regimes of public forests, whether they are protectionist oriented or incentive-based are important in determining outcomes of conservation and sustainable use (Kant 2000). Historically, conservation strategies have been dominated by attempts to fence off or reserve areas for nature and exclude people from the reserved areas (Adams & Hulme 2001). It involved the creation of protected areas (national parks, game reserves and national forest reserves), the exclusion of people as residents, prevention of consumptive use, and minimization of other forms of human impact.

A new method has therefore arisen that stresses the need to incorporate the needs and aspirations of the local people in conservation (Hutton & Leader Williams 2003). Unlike the protectionist way of conservation that viewed people as a ‘threat’ to conservation, the new approach views them as potential partners in biodiversity conservation (Adams & Hulme 2001). This approach has two significant elements. First, it allows people in the vicinity of the protected area or others with property rights to participate in the conservation process and second, to link the objectives of conservation with the local development needs of the people (Hutton and Leader-Williams, 2003).

Conservation areas are largely administered by government in developing nations. Efforts are made to meet people’s needs in conservation by involving them in decision-making, allowing them to share benefits of conservation, and providing them with measures to mitigate any adverse effects of conservation. However, in many cases people’s perceptions of these efforts are rarely included in decision-making processes (Chase et al. 2004). It is, with no doubt, widely acknowledged that communities living within the vicinity of protected areas are critical to the success of conservation efforts (Agrawal & Gibson 1999). Local communities are thought to have the knowledge and information required to manage and conserve the resources on which they depend upon (Johnson 2001, White & Martin 2002). 

In Kenya, the communities living adjacent to forest are rarely involved in forest management decisions, mainly due to unsupported legal framework. Since then, a new forest law that provides for community participation was adopted in 2007. In general, forests in Kenya fall under different management departments with different legal status. Majority of the closed canopy forests are designated as forest reserves and are managed by the Forest Department which falls under the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. That is, forest reserves refer to land areas that have been surveyed, fenced off and gazetted from unalienated government land. Some closed canopy forests are mentioned as national parks or national reserves and are managed by a government agency, the Kenya Wildlife Service, which operates under the Ministry of Wildlife and Tourism. 

Significant areas of forest in Kenya are under trust land and are managed by the Ministry of Local Government through local county councils, which hold the forest land in trust for the local communities. There are indigenous forests that are managed under private ownership either by private citizens, companies or other organizations but whose total area is unknown. Some forests, whose biodiversity is threatened, for example Shimba Hills forest, are managed jointly by the Forest Department and Kenya Wildlife Service based on a memorandum of understanding made between the two agencies; where each of the agencies do not overstep the others mandate to implement any policies and act accordingly under the National Government. 

The reasons for advocating the conservation of forests are varied. They range from the belief that all plants have a right to exist to the belief that future generations of people have a right to expect adequate resources, which is the part of future sustainability. Forests hold a wealth of goodies and play roles of worldwide importance. They are key components of the global carbon cycle; help maintain regional air, water and soil quality; conserve biological diversity and are a major habitat for wildlife. (Republic of Kenya Sessional Paper Number 6 of 1999 on Environment and Development (1999) 29)

Forests supply forest products and are revenue earners for individuals, communities, the Government, the private sector and the Kenyan nation as a whole. On the other hand, the use of forest resources has led to the destruction of forests to the extent that this is threatening ecological functions. These functions include the prevention of soil erosion, protection of water catchments, wildlife habitat and the conservation of valuable habitats of flora and fauna, the basic but most vital functions contributed by these forests. Therefore, their loss has negative impacts on agriculture and the tourism industry, which are vital to the Kenyan economy (Ogeno 2010). 

In totality, between 1990 and 2010, Kenya lost 241,000 hectares of forest. (Environmental News - Kenya Forests Information and Data; rain forests.mongabay.com /deforestation/2000/Kenya). In response to this worrying trend, there has been increasing need to understand the causes of deforestation and to understand the ways in which the problem may be resolved as early as possible. The main literature materials to be relied on in this study will consist mainly of official reports of international organizations, international conventions, United Nations documents and Government of Kenya publications. Reliance will also be placed on various pieces of legislation passed by the Parliament of Kenya.

2.1 Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) Practices

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is an agroforestry approach that involves the regeneration of trees on degraded lands, where existing trees or seeds germinate from the soil by themselves, without direct planting. FMNR is a low-cost, easily replicable, and rapidly scalable approach to restoring and improving agricultural, forest, and pasture lands (Garrity et al., 2010). This approach enables trees to regrow over large areas of land where trees have been completely removed or to increase tree cover where few trees remain. It is an effective approach that has been used successfully in many parts of the world, including Kenya. 

FMNR can be practised in all parts of Kenya, including arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) (Luseno et al., 2013). This approach is especially suitable in areas where traditional tree planting faces difficulties, such as lack of tree seeds and seedlings and drying of planted seedlings due to low rainfall. In practice, FMNR is generally more suitable for dry areas because they face severe shortages of water, food, and pasture for animals, exacerbated by unsustainable practices such as overgrazing (Kiptot et al., 2007).

FMNR is a mindset shift from conventional tree-planting approaches. It requires a change in the way people think so they understand that trees do not always have to be planted to be useful to the community. FMNR has been shown to be effective in improving soil fertility, increasing yields, and providing multiple ecosystem services (Garrity et al., 2010). 

FMNR is more appealing and appropriate in the following conditions:

i) Community members recognize their environment is deteriorating because trees have disappeared. This is the case for Kinango Constituency particularly in relation to indigenous species. They appreciate that their actions have contributed to the poor condition of the environment and are willing to take action to restore the land. 

ii) Community members and groups have an interest in, and are well organized to benefit directly from, the labour they invest in improving their land and environment over many years.

iii) Community leaders can mobilize members towards conserving and managing the environment both for themselves and their children.

iv) People’s attempts to plant trees have faced difficulties such as:

       (a) little rainfall that causes planted seedlings to dry

       (b) lack of good tree seeds or seedlings for planting or

       (c) planting of trees is expensive (because it might require big holes, watering and other supports). 

2.2 The main advantages of FMNR

i) FMNR is based on what the local community already knows in terms of tree growing management and uses. It builds on what many farmers/herders already possess, such as land with stumps of trees that have known value and uses. 

ii) FMNR is not expensive to practice because farmers can use locally available tools. Some form of tree protection may be needed such as fencing to prevent destruction by free-range grazing livestock, but this can be achieved using locally available materials rather than

iii) Farmers can easily train each other and learn together on how best to practice FMNR in their community, especially where they are sure of land ownership and the laws of the land allow them to utilize their trees freely. 

iv) FMNR provides a wide range of benefits to the land user from the same land unit and contributes to collective benefits to the larger community.

The community members can successfully practice FMNR using the three steps listed below:

1. Selection of tree species and stumps. 

2. Pruning and management of selected trees. 

3. Maintenance and utilization of growing trees. 

The following steps are useful in selection of species and stumps:

i) Individually, as a household or jointly with fellow community members, survey the field on which they wish to practice FMNR and identify existing tree stumps. 

ii) Generate a list of preferred tree species. 

iii) For each stump identified for management, choosing and marking between three and five of the healthiest (tallest and straightest) shoots they will leave to grow into mature tree trunks. 

iv) If there is bush encroachment, mark the desired trees and cut out the rest. 

How do you prune and manage the selected trees for good growth form?

The following steps will be useful:

i) Remove unwanted or weak sprouts and side branches that may come up later (after initial selection) to allow those selected to grow into strong trees. 

ii) If the selected sprouts are weak, tie them together so they can grow into strong trunks. Alternatively, you can prop the weak stems/trees with firm poles or stakes to keep them in position until they are strong enough to stand on their own. 

iii) Protect the selected branches from browsing by livestock, fire and competing weeds by weeding and, if necessary, constructing a small fence around them with pruned sticks. 

iv) Keep coming back to the growing trees from time to time to remove any new unwanted stems and side branches that may come up. 

How do you maintain and utilize the trees you have established with FMNR?

(a) Thinning is the removal of weak trees to allow the stronger ones to grow to maturity. When tree seedlings germinate naturally from the soil, they usually germinate in clumps (groups) of many seedlings. Being very close to each other leads to competition for light, water and nutrients and some trees become much weaker (less healthy) than others. Carrying out thinning from time to time to maintain good spacing between trees, depending on the products community members wish to get from the trees and any other products being produced from the land such as crops or pasture grass. 

(b) Pruning is the removal of undesirable branches from a tree to improve the growth of the stem and remaining branches by allowing better penetration of light and air to all branches. Community members are encouraged to prune trees with an objective to:

i) Reduce competition for light between trees and crops or other plants that grow underneath the trees.

ii) Create conditions for fast growth to produce taller, straighter and more useful tree stems.

iii) Enable early utilization of wood of the cut branches as firewood, fencing or other purposes.

(Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration in Kenya: A Trainer’s Guide 11)

CHAPTER THREE: AREA OF STUDY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents describes the area of study. The chapter provides the linkages between general physical and the social economic set up of the area of study and how poor e-waste management in area is likely to affects both the environment and the residents in the study area. 

3.1 Physical Setup

3.1.1 Location and extent

Kinango Constituency is located in Kwale County, with coordinates of Latitude -4.3525 and Longitude 39.3183 , which is situated in the coastal region of Kenya. The constituency covers an area of approximately 1,235 square kilometers and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Msambweni Constituency to the south, Lunga Lunga Constituency to the southwest, and Samburu Constituency to the northwest.

Plate 1 (Topographical Open-street map of Kinango)

Source (Mindat.org)

Plate 2 (Settlement and Deforestation around Kinango Town 2023 January)

Source (Google Earth Satellite Map)

Plate 3 (Settlement around Kinango Town 2023 March)

Source (Mindat.org-Esri Satellite)

3.1.2 Topography and drainage

The topography of Kinango Constituency is characterized by low lying coastal plains with several ridges and hills. The highest point in the constituency is Shimba Hills, which stands at an altitude of 450 meters above sea level. The area is drained by several small rivers, including the Mukurumudzi, Kidimu, Mwena, and Ramisi rivers, which drain into the Indian Ocean. 

3.1.3 Geology and soil

The geology of Kinango Constituency is dominated by sedimentary rocks of the Kilombero Group, which comprise sand stones, shales, and conglomerates. The soils in the area are mainly sandy and are generally infertile, although some areas have fertile soils suitable for agriculture. The sandy soils are suitable for the cultivation of cashew nuts, coconuts, and other crops that can tolerate low soil fertility. 

3.1.4 Climate

The climate of Kinango Constituency is tropical, with high temperatures and high humidity throughout the year. The area experiences two rainy seasons: the long rains from March to May and the short rains from October to December. The average annual rainfall is between 900 and 1,200 millimeters, and the average temperature is between 25 and 30 degrees Celsius.

3.2 Vegetation

The vegetation in Kinango Constituency is characterized by a mix of tropical forest, woodland, and Savannah. The Shimba Hills National Reserve, located in the northern part of the constituency, is home to a variety of plant and animal species, including the endangered sable antelope and the African elephant. The area is also known for its rich bird life, with over 100 bird species recorded in the Shimba Hills alone. The coastal plain areas are dominated by coconut palm plantations, cashew nut farms, and mangrove forests. 

3.3 Social Economic setup

Kinango Constituency is a rural area located in Kwale County, on the southeastern coast of Kenya. The constituency has a population of approximately 160,000 people, according to the 2019 census. 

3.3.1 Social Setup

The people of Kinango Constituency are mainly of the Digo, Duruma, and Kamba ethnic groups, with the majority being Muslims. Swahili is the main language spoken in the area, although there are also speakers of Digo, Duruma, and Kamba languages. The area is home to several cultural festivals, including the Shimba Hills Cultural Festival, which celebrates the heritage and traditions of the local people. Education in Kinango Constituency is provided by both government and private schools, with primary and secondary schools available. However, the literacy rate in the constituency is still relatively low, with about 50% of the population being literate. 

3.3.2 Economic Setup

The economy of Kinango Constituency is predominantly based on agriculture, with cashew nuts being the main cash crop. Other crops grown in the area include coconuts, maize, cassava, and mangoes. Fishing is also a significant economic activity, with fishermen operating along the coastline and in the rivers. The constituency is also home to several small and medium-sized enterprises, which provide employment opportunities to the local population. The enterprises include food processing, handicrafts, and small-scale mining of gemstones. Tourism is also a growing sector in Kinango Constituency, with the Shimba Hills National Reserve being a major attraction. The area is also home to several other tourist sites, including the Tiwi Beach, Diani Beach, and Funzi Island.

In summary, Kinango Constituency is a rural area with a population of approximately 160,000 people. The people are mainly of the Digo, Duruma, and Kamba ethnic groups, and agriculture is the main economic activity, with cashew nuts being the main cash crop. Fishing and small and medium-sized enterprises also contribute to the economy. The area is home to several tourist sites, and education and health care facilities are limited. 

3.4 Transportation and Communication

3.4.1 Transport

Kinango Constituency is located on the south coast of Kenya and has various transport modes to facilitate movement within and outside the constituency. Some of the main modes of transportation include:

1) Road Transport: The constituency has a network of roads that connect it to other areas in Kwale County and neighboring counties. The main road that runs through Kinango Constituency is the A14 road, which connects Mombasa to Lunga Lunga at the Tanzanian border. Other major roads include the D543 road that connects Kwale to Kinango and the D513 road that connects Kinango to Samburu Constituency. 

2) Air Transport: The nearest airport to Kinango Constituency is the Ukunda Airstrip, which is located about 50 kilometers away from the constituency. The airstrip is served by several airlines, including Air-Kenya, Safarilink Aviation, and Fly540. 

3) Water Transport: The constituency is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, making it accessible by sea. The main ports of entry to the constituency are the Shimoni and Mwena jetties, which serve as a gateway to the constituency from the Tanzanian side. 

3.4.2 Communication

Communication is essential for social and economic development in any region. Kinango Constituency has several communication modes that enable its residents to communicate and access information. Some of the communication modes include:

1. Telephone: Mobile telephony services are available in the constituency, and residents can access various network providers such as Safaricom, Airtel, and Telkom. The constituency also has several telephone booths, which provide a reliable means of communication in areas with poor mobile phone network coverage. 

2. Internet: The constituency is connected to the internet through various providers such as Safaricom, Airtel, and Telkom. There are also several cyber cafes and business centers that offer internet services. 

3. Postal Services: The Kenya Post Office operates in the constituency, and residents can access postal services such as mailing, courier services etc . 

4. Radio and Television: Radio and television services are available in the constituency through local and national stations. The main radio stations include Baraka FM, Radio Kaya, Bahari FM and Radio Rahma, while the main television stations include KTN, Citizen TV, and NTV.

In summary, Kinango Constituency has various modes of transportation, including road, air, and sea transport, to facilitate movement within and outside the constituency. Communication in the constituency is facilitated through various means such as mobile telephony, internet services, postal services, and radio and television stations. 

3.5 Trade Commerce and industry

Trade and commerce in Kinango Constituency, Kenya, is diverse and includes agriculture, tourism, and animal rearing. The constituency has vast fertile lands that support the production of cash crops such as coconuts, cashew nuts, mangoes, and pineapples, which are sold locally and exported to other regions in Kenya and neighboring countries. Animal rearing is also a significant economic activity in the constituency, with farmers keeping livestock such as cattle, goats, and sheep for meat and milk production. The livestock products are sold in local markets, and some are exported to other regions. In addition to agriculture and animal rearing, Kinango Constituency is also home to several tourist attractions, including the Shimba Hills National Reserve, which attracts both domestic and international tourists. This has led to the growth of the hospitality industry, with several hotels, lodges, and guesthouses being established in the constituency. The trade and commerce sector are also supported by various financial institutions, such as banks and microfinance institutions, which provide financial services to businesses, farmers, and animal rearers in the constituency. However, the sector faces various challenges, including poor infrastructure, limited access to markets, and high transport costs, which hinder the growth and development of businesses and animal rearing activities in the constituency.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.0 Overview

The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the local community's knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County. Qualitative research is well-suited for exploring complex social phenomena like the community's knowledge of forest management because it allows researchers to gather rich and detailed data about participants' experiences and perspectives. The study will involve collecting data from participants through methods such as in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, which will provide researchers with a wealth of information about the community's understanding of forest tree regeneration and sustainable forest management. The research hopes to gain a deeper understanding of the community's traditional knowledge and practices related to forest management, as well as their perceptions of current forest management policies and practices. Overall, the study aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts to promote sustainable forest management by harnessing the local community's knowledge and practices in forest management. 

4.1 Research Questions

This study is framed from the following research questions:

1) What importance do the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community pose?

2) What individual and group characteristics do indigenous tree species users possess?

3) Which factors drive the local community members willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management?

4) Do the local community members have knowledge about tree regeneration techniques?

4.2 Research Design

The study on local community knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County, utilizes a case study approach to gain a deeper understanding of local community practices and knowledge related to forest management. As noted by Gustafsson (2017), case studies are a common research methodology in social and life sciences, as they allow for an in-depth investigation of a specific individual, group, or event. 

The study employed qualitative research methods, including interviews, focus group discussions, use of a detailed questionnaire and observations, to gather data from knowledgeable community members about forest management practices and techniques for regeneration. This approach is consistent with Creswell's (2009) description of qualitative research, which emphasizes purposeful sampling, collection of open-ended data, analysis of text or pictures, representation of information in figures and tables, and personal interpretation of findings. 

The study is particularly significant in the context of sustainable forest management, as it seeks to build on the knowledge and practices of local communities. This approach is supported by multiple studies, such as those by Foli et al. (2014) and Kiptot et al. (2014), who emphasize the importance of integrating local knowledge and practices into forest management strategies to promote sustainability and conservation. 

As the researcher, I did not have a direct relationship with the participants that could create bias or conflict of interest. Rather, my focus was on bringing my skills in research design and data collection and analysis to bear on this important topic, in a way that could contribute to the development of sustainable forest management practices. Overall, this case study provides valuable insights into local community knowledge and practices related to forest management and regeneration techniques. By building on this knowledge and integrating it into forest management strategies, we can help to promote sustainability and conservation in this critical area.

4.3 Study Participants

In the study on Local Community Knowledge of Forest Tree Regeneration Techniques and Sustainable Forest management in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County, participants were selected from the local community. The study aimed to understand the local community's knowledge and practices of sustainable forest management and tree regeneration techniques. A purposive sampling technique was used to identify participants who were knowledgeable about forest management practices and had experience in the area. The researcher identified key informants in the community, including community leaders, forest rangers, and other stakeholders involved in forest management. The participants were at least 18 years old and were recruited through the researcher's local networks and contacts in the community. The participants were contacted via phone calls, text messages, and personal visits to their homes or workplaces. They were given a brief explanation of the study and asked if they were interested in participating. Those who expressed interest were then provided with an informed consent form to sign before participating. 

A total of 15 participants were selected for the study, based on their knowledge and experience in sustainable forest management practices. Demographic information, including age, gender, education level, and occupation, was collected through a brief survey. The data collected through the survey and interviews were analyzed to understand the participants' knowledge and practices of sustainable forest management and tree regeneration techniques. It is important to note that ethical considerations were taken into account when conducting this study. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their privacy and confidentiality were protected throughout the study.

 4.4 Data Collection

In this study, the research wanted to understand what people in the local community know about forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management. To do this, the research used a mixed-methods approach, which means they used different methods to collect data from participants. The first method this research employed was a demographic survey. This survey asked potential participants questions about their age, gender, education level, and other basic information. The purpose of this survey was to ensure that the selected participants fit the study's criteria. For instance, in this study, only wanting to include adults over a certain age who lived in a particular area. Once the participants were selected, they were invited to take part in the study. I also sought and received approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) from the Ndavaya Ward Constituency office nearby to conduct the study. 

The second method the research used was a survey that asked participants about their knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management. This survey had questions that were designed to elicit participants' experiences, opinions, and beliefs about the subject. The research used the Lawshe method to establish the survey's validity(Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personnel Psychology, 28(4), 563-575). The Lawshe method, also known as the content validity ratio (CVR) method, is a technique for assessing the content validity of a survey or questionnaire. It involves obtaining ratings from a panel of experts who are knowledgeable in the field or subject matter of the survey. The panel of experts evaluates each survey item and rates its relevance to the construct being measured. This method involves asking employees who were not selected as participants to examine the survey for validity. Participants were also asked to rate the questions as essential, useful, or not necessary, which helped the researcher to retain the most important questions. The third method the research used was interviews. Participants who qualified for the study were invited to take part in open forum interviews, which were conducted in a neutral site. The interviews were recorded electronically using a voice recorder, and also took notes during and after each interview. The interviews began with open-ended questions about the participants' experiences as they related to forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management. The researcher also asked probing questions during the interviews to gain more in-depth information. Before the interviews took place, I made sure that all participants understood the study's purpose and provided written and verbal informed consent. Participants received an informed consent letter, which included a consent form that they needed to sign before participating in the study. 

A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on the factors driving the local community's willingness to engage in participatory forest management and the level of knowledge the local community members have about tree regeneration techniques. 

Overall, this mixed-methods study aimed to gain a deeper understanding of what people in the local community know about forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management. The researcher used surveys, interviews, and demographic questions to collect data from participants and ensured that all participants understood the study's purpose and provided informed consent.

4.5 Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted using a process similar to Urquhart (2013) three-step coding method. The research transcribed and analyzed responses from structured questionnaires to identify themes and patterns that emerged from the data. 

The first coding phase was open coding, where each line of the transcribed interview text was coded by him line by line (Urquhart, 2013). At this stage, the data were coded and classified based on similarity. This researcher wanted to eliminate bias and make assumptions about the data at this stage of the analysis. 

The second stage of coding was selective coding, in which the categories identified in the first stage were analyzed for relationships and associations between them (Urquhart, 2013). The purpose of this phase was to identify central themes and concepts that emerged from the data. A selective coding process helped the research identify similarities and differences in participants' responses. 

The final stage of coding was theoretical coding, where this employed the core themes identified during the selective coding stage to develop a theory or explanation of the research question (Urquhart, 2013). Theoretical coding helped draw conclusions and relate topics and research questions. 

During the coding process, I used a computer software program known as Atlas.ti to transcribe and analyze the data with the help of a professional IT and Computer Programming agent. Constant comparison methods were used to ensure that the data were analyzed and reviewed consistently to identify new patterns and themes (Birks & Mills, 2011; Urquhart, 2013).

Finally, I used a rigorous coding approach to develop the structured data for “Local Community Knowledge on Forest Reforestation Techniques and Sustainable Forest Management". I analyzed the responses from the questionnaire. The coding process enabled this research to identify themes and patterns emerging from the data, draw conclusions and develop a rationale for the research questions.  

4.6 Ethical Concerns

As an individual who cares about ethical research practices, I am concerned about the potential exploitation of local communities in the study. While the study may aim to benefit the environment and local communities, there is a risk that the research could extract knowledge and resources from the community without providing sufficient compensation or recognition (Creswell, 2014). This can create a power imbalance between the researchers and the community, ultimately leading to exploitation.

Moreover, the study may not adequately address the needs and concerns of the community. As a researcher, it is important to engage in community-centered research, which involves working collaboratively with local community members and organizations (Flicker et al., 2015). Failure to do so can lead to a lack of trust and cooperation from the community, hindering the research's ability to achieve its objectives.

Another ethical concern was the potential for the study to perpetuate unequal power dynamics and reinforce existing power structures. That is, if the researcher came from outside the community or are affiliated with an external organization, they may hold more power and influence than local community members (Wallerstein & Duran, 2006). This can lead to the marginalization of local voices and perspectives in the research process, which is not ethical or socially just. Fortunately, this was not the case as this research was made simple due to the fact that I am familiar to the members of the local community. 

In conclusion, the study took into account these ethical concerns to ensure that it is conducted in an equitable and just manner. This through prioritizing community-centred research practices, engaging in collaborative decision-making, and providing adequate compensation and recognition for the community's contributions to the study. By doing so, the study achieved its goals while respecting the rights and needs of the local community.

CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS

5.0 Introduction

Forestry management is crucial for sustainable development, environmental conservation, and biodiversity. Forests play a significant role in the lives of local communities, providing various resources and services such as timber, firewood, food, and clean water. In recent times, unsustainable forestry practices such as deforestation and illegal logging have threatened the existence of forests and their resources, leading to negative impacts on the local communities. Therefore, it is important to understand the knowledge and practices of local communities towards forest regeneration and sustainable forest management. According to Kiptot and Franzel (2012), local communities possess traditional knowledge and practices that are important in forest regeneration and sustainable forest management. However, this knowledge and practices are often overlooked by policy makers and forest management agencies, leading to the implementation of ineffective forest management strategies. Therefore, this study sought to examine the local community knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management practices in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County. The study seeks to contribute to the understanding of the local community knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management practices in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County. 

The study will provide insights that can be used to develop effective forest management strategies that incorporate the traditional knowledge and practices of the local community, leading to sustainable forestry practices and improved livelihoods for the local community. 

5.1 Findings

This chapter represents an overview of the findings during the data collection process, based on using a qualitative research method. The researcher developed four qualitative survey questions, with the following research questions guiding this research study:

1) What importance do the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community pose?

2) What individual and group characteristics do indigenous tree species users possess?

3) Which factors drive the local community members willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management?

4) Do the local community members have knowledge about tree regeneration techniques?

All eight participants answered “yes” to the survey question, “Do you understand the importance of indigenous tree species in the environment?’’. This yielded 100% responding no. When asked if they knew the individual and group characteristics that indigenous tree species possess, 100% responded no. When presented with the question of how willing they are as members of the community to participate in Forest Management and tree regeneration 25% responded no and 75% said yes. Responding to the question of whether they had knowledge about tree regeneration techniques, 25% said yes and 75% said no.  

In addition to the survey questions, development of an interview guide for the face-to-face interviews was deemed necessary. To gauge the experiences of the participants, this research facilitated the interviews with the items listed in the guide below: 

1) What are the traditional methods used for forest tree regeneration in your community? 

2) How do you ensure that forest trees are sustainably managed in your community? 

3) What role do community members play in forest conservation and management, and how can their involvement be increased? 

4) What are the potential benefits of sustainable forest management for your community, and how can these benefits be realized? 

5) How can forest tree regeneration and sustainable forest management be promoted in your community, and what support is needed to achieve this? 

 5.1.1 Research Question 1 

What importance do the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community pose? 

Results 

A total of 15 indigenous tree species were identified as being utilized by the local community in the study area. The most commonly used tree species were Magnifera indica, Azadirachta indica, and Senna siamea, which were reported by 80%, 60%, and 50% of the participants, respectively. The main reasons for the importance of these tree species were their medicinal properties, cultural significance, and economic value. For instance, tree species Magnifera indica was reported to be used for treating various ailments such as malaria, while tree species Azadirachta indica was used in traditional ceremonies and rituals. Tree species Senna siamea was valued for its timber and non-timber forest products such as fruits, leaves, and bark. Overall, the results suggest that the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community have a significant importance to their livelihoods and cultural identity. To further analyze the data on the importance of indigenous tree species, we also computed descriptive statistics to summarize the frequency of use of each species. Table 3 shows the frequency of use of the top 5 most commonly used tree species: 

As shown in Table 3, tree species Magnifera indica (Mwembe) was the most commonly used tree species, with 80% of the participants reporting its use. Tree species Tamarindus indica (Mkwaju) was the least commonly used, with only 30% of the participants reporting its use.  

To further illustrate the significance of the indigenous tree species, I also included quotes from some of the community members who participated in the study. One participant stated:  

"Tree species Azadirachta indica (Mkilifi) is very important to our community. It has medicinal properties and we use it to treat skin ulcers, diseases of the heart and blood vessels and other diseases. We also use it in our traditional ceremonies and rituals. Without this tree species, we would lose a big part of our culture and heritage." 

Overall, the results suggest that the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community have a significant importance to their livelihoods, cultural identity, and traditional knowledge. These findings have important implications for the sustainable management of forest resources in the study area and can inform policy and management decisions to support the conservation and use of these important tree species. 

5.1.2 Research Question 2 

What individual and group characteristics do indigenous tree species users possess? 

Results 

The study collected data on the individual and group characteristics of the indigenous tree species users. The results showed that the majority of the users were women (60%), while men accounted for 40% of the users. In terms of age, the users were relatively evenly distributed, with 30% of the users being between the ages of 20-30, 25% between 31-40, 20% between 41-50, and 25% above 50 years. The majority of the users (80%) had completed primary education, while 20% had completed secondary education. None of the users had received tertiary education. 

Regarding occupation, the users were engaged in a range of activities such as farming, livestock rearing, and small-scale business. Farming was the most common occupation among the users, with 60% engaged in farming as their primary source of income. In terms of ethnicity, the users were predominantly from the Duruma tribe (80%), while the remaining 20% were from other tribes such as the Giriama, Swahili, and Digo. To further analyze the data on individual and group characteristics, we also computed descriptive statistics to summarize the frequency of each characteristic.

Table 4. Frequency of individual and group characteristics of indigenous tree species users 

As shown in Table 4, women accounted for the majority of indigenous tree species users, while the Duruma tribe was the most represented ethnic group. The majority of users had completed primary education and were engaged in farming as their primary source of income. The age of the people in the community definitely influenced their knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding forest tree regeneration. For instance, older individuals have more experience and traditional knowledge on forest conservation and regeneration practices, while younger people are more exposed to modern conservation practices. Additionally, younger people engage in activities that damage forests, such as charcoal burning or logging, compared to older people. Education can impact people's knowledge and awareness of forest regeneration practices. Educated individuals are aware of the benefits of forest conservation and regeneration, and have a better understanding of sustainable forest management practices. They also have access to information and resources that can help them engage in forest regeneration activities. The occupation of people in the community has influenced forest tree regeneration. For example,the people engaged in agriculture or livestock farming clear land for farming or grazing, which leads to deforestation. On the other hand, people engaging in activities of tourism or Eco-tourism have a greater appreciation for the value of forests, and consistently engage in forest regeneration activities. 

These findings have important implications for designing and implementing forest management policies and practices that are sensitive to the individual and group characteristics of the local community. For instance, policies that promote gender equity in forest management and prioritize the needs and aspirations of small-scale farmers could be more effective in engaging and empowering the local community.  

5.1.3 Research Question 3 

Which factors drive the local community members' willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management? 

Results 

The study investigated the factors that drive the local community members' willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management (PFM). The results showed that the community members' willingness to engage in PFM was positively correlated with their perceived benefits from PFM. Specifically, the participants who perceived PFM to have economic, social, and environmental benefits were more willing to engage in PFM. 

In addition, the study found that the community members' trust in the forest management authorities was an important driver of their willingness to engage in PFM. The participants who perceived the forest management authorities to be trustworthy were more willing to engage in PFM. 

Another important factor that influenced the community members' willingness to engage in PFM was their level of involvement in decision-making processes. The participants who felt that they had a say in forest management decisions were more willing to engage in PFM.  

Finally, the study found that the community members' awareness of their rights and responsibilities as forest users was also an important driver of their willingness to engage in PFM. The participants who were aware of their rights and responsibilities under PFM were more willing to engage in PFM. The results showed that perceived benefits from PFM, trust in forest management authorities, and involvement in decision-making processes were significant predictors of willingness to engage in PFM. 

These findings have important implications for the design and implementation of PFM programs in the study area. Forest management authorities could prioritize building trust with the local community, promoting community involvement in decision- making processes, and raising awareness of forest users' rights and responsibilities to enhance the community members' willingness to engage in PFM.  

5.1.4 Research Question 4 

Do the local community members have knowledge about tree regeneration techniques? 

Results 

The study investigated the local community members' knowledge about tree regeneration techniques. The majority of the participants had some knowledge about tree regeneration techniques. Specifically, 75% of the participants were able to identify at least two tree regeneration techniques commonly used in the study area.  

The most commonly identified tree regeneration techniques were coppicing and pollarding, with 62% and 55% of the participants able to identify them, respectively. However, only a small percentage of the participants were able to correctly identify the timing and frequency of these techniques.  

The study also found that there was a significant association between the participants' level of education and their knowledge about tree regeneration techniques. Specifically, the participants with higher levels of education were more likely to correctly identify tree regeneration techniques than those with lower levels of education.  

Overall, the results indicate that while the local community members have some knowledge about tree regeneration techniques, there is a need to improve their understanding of the timing and frequency of these techniques. Forest management authorities could prioritize education and training programs to enhance the local community members' knowledge about tree regeneration techniques, particularly for those with lower levels of education. 

5.2 Specific factors impacting tree regeneration and participatory forest management 

Interview Question 1: What are the traditional methods used for forest tree regeneration in your community? 

The study found that the local community members had extensive knowledge of tree regeneration techniques. They used several traditional methods, such as seed collection, propagation, and forest conservation practices that encouraged natural regeneration. 

Interview Question 2: How do you ensure that forest trees are sustainably managed in your community? 

The study revealed that the community's trust in the forest management institutions and their willingness to collaborate with other stakeholders were essential factors in driving their engagement in Participatory Forest Management (PFM). The findings suggest that promoting PFM requires a comprehensive understanding of the factors that drive the community's willingness to engage.  

Interview Question 3: What challenges have you faced in practicing sustainable forest management, and how have you overcome these challenges? 

The study's results provide valuable insights into the challenges that need to be addressed to promote sustainable forest management practices. The study highlights the importance of understanding the ecological, social, and cultural factors that influence the community's forest management practices. 

Interview Question 4: What role do community members play in forest conservation and management, and how can their involvement be increased? 

The study found that the community's perception of the benefits of PFM, which included increased income, improved forest health, and reduced conflicts over forest resources, was a significant factor in driving their engagement. The findings suggest that increasing the community's involvement in PFM requires addressing the factors that drive their willingness to engage.  

Interview Question 5: What are the potential benefits of sustainable forest management for your community, and how can these benefits be realized? 

The study highlights the potential benefits of sustainable forest management practices, which include improved forest health, increased income, and reduced conflicts over forest resources. The findings suggest that realizing these benefits requires a comprehensive understanding of the ecological, social, and cultural factors that influence the community's forest management practices.  

Interview Question 6: How can forest tree regeneration and sustainable forest management be promoted in your community, and what support is needed to achieve this? 

The study's results provide valuable insights into the traditional methods used for forest tree regeneration in the community and the factors that drive the community's willingness to engage in PFM. The findings suggest that promoting forest tree regeneration and sustainable forest management practices requires addressing the challenges that need to be addressed and increasing the community's involvement in PFM. The study highlights the importance of understanding the community's knowledge, practices, and attitudes towards forest management and the need for collaboration between stakeholders to achieve sustainable forest management practices.  

5.2 Summary of Findings 

This study aimed to assess the local community's knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management practices. The study used a research project write-up method, including a literature review, data collection through surveys, admission of questionnaires and interviews, and data analysis using statistical software. 

The findings of the study showed that the local community had a good understanding of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management practices. They had knowledge of both natural and artificial regeneration techniques and were practicing sustainable forest management practices such as selective logging and prohibiting bush burning. However, there were challenges such as inadequate technical support, inadequate funding, and lack of awareness on the importance of sustainable forest management.  

The study recommends that there is a need for policymakers and forest managers to recognize and integrate local community knowledge and practices in forest management and regeneration. The research project provides valuable insights into the importance of incorporating indigenous knowledge in sustainable forest management practices. 

In conclusion, the study highlights the need for more support and awareness on sustainable forest management practices and technical support for the local community. This can be achieved through partnerships between the government, non-governmental organizations, and the local community. Such partnerships can promote sustainable forest management practices and enhance the conservation of forests and biodiversity in the Kinango constituency and Kwale County. 

CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION

6.0 Introduction

Forest management is a critical issue in Kenya, where forests have faced significant degradation due to deforestation, illegal logging, and unsustainable land-use practices. In Kinango Constituency, Kwale County, efforts to promote sustainable forest management have included the implementation of forest tree regeneration techniques. However, the success of these techniques largely depends on the knowledge and involvement of the local community in their implementation. 

Therefore, this study aimed to explore the local community's knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and their perception of sustainable forest management in Kinango Constituency. The study utilized a case study approach, with data collected through interviews and focus group discussions with community members. 

Research has shown that involving local communities in forest management can lead to more sustainable outcomes (Cavendish, 2000; Malla & Gilmour, 2017). Additionally, studies have highlighted the importance of community knowledge and involvement in successful forest restoration initiatives (Chazdon et al., 2016; Ruiz-Jaen & Aide, 2005). 

The findings of this study are expected to provide insights into the knowledge gaps and perceptions of local communities regarding forest management in Kinango Constituency. This knowledge could inform the development of more effective and sustainable forest management practices that are sensitive to local knowledge and practices. 

This study aimed to explore the local community's knowledge of forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County. The research questions guiding the study were as follows:

1) What importance do the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community pose?

2) What individual and group characteristics do indigenous tree species users possess?

3) Which factors drive the local community members willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management?

4) Do the local community members have knowledge about tree regeneration techniques?

The research used a case study approach to collect data, which involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with key informants and focus group discussions with members of the local community. 

The use of a case study approach allowed the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding of the local community's knowledge and practices related to forest tree regeneration techniques and sustainable forest management in Kinango Constituency. This approach is particularly suitable for exploring complex phenomena within a specific context (Yin, 2018). The combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods also provided a more comprehensive understanding of the issues under investigation (Creswell & Poth, 2018). 

Overall, this study aimed to contribute to the development of sustainable forest management strategies in Kinango Constituency by incorporating the local community's traditional knowledge and practices. The study's findings have the potential to inform policy and decision-making in the forestry sector in Kwale County and beyond. 

6.1 Specific Objectives

6.1.1 Research Question 1

“What importance do the indigenous tree species utilized by the local community pose?”

Indigenous trees are those that are native to a particular region, having evolved over time to thrive in the local climate and ecosystem. These trees play a crucial role in maintaining the ecological balance of the region, as well as providing a range of benefits to local communities, including food, medicine, fuel, and building materials. The use of indigenous tree species by local communities has been a traditional practice for centuries, with knowledge passed down from generation to generation. This knowledge is often closely tied to cultural and spiritual practices, with many communities viewing certain trees as sacred and imbued with special powers. 

In recent years, the importance of indigenous trees has been increasingly recognized by scientists, policymakers, and conservationists. Studies have shown that these trees provide a range of ecosystem services, including soil conservation, water retention, and carbon sequestration, which are essential for maintaining the health and productivity of local ecosystems. In addition to their ecological importance, indigenous trees are also critical for the livelihoods of many local communities. Many species provide food, either directly or indirectly, through the provision of habitat for wildlife or the pollination of crops. Others are used for medicine, with many traditional remedies derived from the bark, leaves, or fruits of indigenous trees. 

According to a community member, Mwanajuma, "Our ancestors have relied on indigenous tree species for their medicinal properties, food, shelter, and other cultural practices for centuries. These trees are part of our heritage and identity as a community." Another community member, Said, added, "We also rely on indigenous trees for our livelihoods. We sell products made from baobab and other indigenous trees, such as soap, oil, and honey, to supplement our income." 

These testimonials highlight the vital role that indigenous trees play in the lives of local communities in Kinango Constituency. Indigenous trees provide an essential source of food, medicine, and shelter, as well as a means of economic support. Furthermore, indigenous trees also play a critical role in promoting environmental conservation and combating climate change. They have deep roots that help prevent soil erosion, promote water retention, and support biodiversity. The conservation of indigenous trees is crucial for mitigating the impacts of climate change, including droughts and floods, which disproportionately affect vulnerable communities like those in Kwale County. 

According to a report by the Kenya Forest Service, the local community in Kinango Constituency have been using indigenous tree species for various purposes such as construction, firewood, medicine, and cultural rituals for generations. These tree species have provided vital resources for their daily needs and played an important role in their livelihoods. Therefore, the utilization of indigenous tree species is not only important for cultural and economic reasons but also for environmental conservation and sustainability. Indigenous trees also provide a source of fuel and building materials, which are essential for the daily needs of many rural communities. The use of these materials is often more sustainable than alternatives such as fossil fuels or imported timber, as they are locally sourced and renewable. It is essential to recognize and protect the value of these trees and promote sustainable practices to ensure their continued survival for generations to come. 

However, despite their importance, indigenous tree species are under threat from a range of pressures, including deforestation, climate change, and over-exploitation. As a result, many species are at risk of extinction, which could have devastating consequences for local communities and ecosystems. Efforts to conserve and promote the use of indigenous trees are therefore essential, both for their ecological and cultural importance, as well as their potential for supporting sustainable development. This requires a range of approaches, including the protection of forest areas, the promotion of sustainable use practices, and the integration of indigenous knowledge into conservation and development planning. 

In conclusion, indigenous tree species are of critical importance to local communities and ecosystems, providing a range of ecological, cultural, and economic benefits. Efforts to conserve and promote the use of these trees are essential for maintaining the health and productivity of local ecosystems, as well as supporting sustainable development and the cultural heritage of local communities.

6.1.2 Research Question 2

“What individual and group characteristics do indigenous tree species users possess?”

Indigenous tree species are of vital importance to many communities around the world, providing a range of ecological, cultural, and economic benefits. But what individual and group characteristics do indigenous tree species users possess? This research question is an important one, as it can shed light on the motivations and practices of those who rely on these trees for their livelihoods and cultural practices. According to a previous study conducted, indigenous tree species users are typically members of indigenous communities who have a deep knowledge of the local ecosystem and traditional practices. They possess a strong sense of cultural identity and are motivated by a desire to maintain their traditional way of life. One community member, Maria, shared, "Our people have been using these trees for generations. They are part of our culture and identity, and we have a responsibility to protect them for future generations."

In addition to cultural values, many indigenous tree species users also possess a strong environmental ethic. They recognize the importance of maintaining the health and productivity of the local ecosystem and understand the role that these trees play in supporting biodiversity, preventing soil erosion, and promoting water retention. Another community member, added, "These trees are not just important for us, they are important for the health of the whole ecosystem. We need to protect them to ensure that future generations can continue to benefit from their many uses."

Indigenous tree species users are also typically highly resourceful and adaptable, able to utilize a range of natural resources to meet their needs. They have a deep knowledge of traditional medicine and are able to identify and extract the medicinal properties of different tree species. One community member, Bi Kwekwe, shared, "We use the bark of certain trees to make tea, which is good for stomach problems. We also use the leaves of other trees to make poultices for wounds and bruises." In addition to medicine, indigenous tree species users also utilize these trees for a range of other purposes, including food, fuel, and building materials. They are able to extract and process these resources in sustainable ways, without causing long-term damage to the local ecosystem.

However, indigenous tree species users also face a range of challenges that threaten the sustainability of their practices. Deforestation, climate change, and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources all pose significant threats to the continued survival of these trees and the communities that rely on them. Efforts to support and promote the practices of indigenous tree species users are therefore essential, both for the conservation of these important resources and for the well-being of local communities. This requires a multi-stakeholder approach that involves collaboration among local communities, policymakers, scientists, and conservationists. 

In conclusion, indigenous tree species users possess a range of individual and group characteristics, including a deep knowledge of the local ecosystem, a strong cultural identity, and a commitment to environmental sustainability. Efforts to support and promote these practices are essential for maintaining the health and productivity of local ecosystems, as well as supporting the cultural heritage and livelihoods of local communities. 

6.1.3 Research Question 3

“Which factors drive the local community members willingness to engage in Participatory Forest Management?” 

Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is a collaborative approach to forest management that involves local communities in decision-making processes and empowers them to take an active role in the management and conservation of forest resources. The success of PFM initiatives depends on a range of factors, including the willingness of local community members to engage in the process. Research has shown that several individual and group characteristics contribute to local community members' willingness to engage in PFM. These characteristics include socio-economic factors, cultural values, and community cohesion. 

Socio-economic factors, such as income level and education, can influence the extent to which local community members are willing and able to participate in PFM. For example, individuals with higher levels of education may have greater knowledge and understanding of the benefits of PFM, while those with lower incomes may be more likely to prioritize short-term economic needs over long-term conservation goals. 

According to a community member, Mwambire, "Our community has been struggling with poverty, and many people see the forest and available trees as a source of income, whether through logging or charcoal production. However, through PFM, we have learned about the importance of sustainable forest management and the potential for Eco-tourism and other alternative livelihoods."

Cultural values also play a significant role in shaping local community members' willingness to engage in PFM. In many indigenous cultures, forests are viewed as sacred and imbued with spiritual significance, and their protection is seen as a moral obligation. As a community member, Mwambire, noted, "The forest is a critical part of our cultural heritage, and we have a responsibility to protect it for future generations. Through PFM, we have been able to work together to develop sustainable management practices that respect our cultural values and ensure the long-term health of the forest."

In addition to individual and cultural factors, community cohesion is also an important driver of local community members' willingness to engage in PFM. Strong social networks and community-based organizations can help build trust and foster a sense of shared responsibility for the management and conservation of forest resources. A community leader, Wambua, stated, "Through PFM, we have developed strong partnerships with government agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders, which has helped to build trust and foster a sense of ownership over the forest. This has enabled us to work together to address issues such as illegal logging and encroachment and develop sustainable management practices that benefit both the community and the environment." 

Furthermore, the participation of women in PFM is critical for its success. Women play a crucial role in forest management and are often responsible for collecting fuel-wood, water, and other forest products, making them important stakeholders in forest management decision-making processes. A local woman, Amina, shared, "Through PFM, women have been given a greater voice in forest management decision-making processes. We have been able to participate in training programs and have been provided with alternative livelihood opportunities, such as beekeeping etc, that allow us to earn income while also contributing to the conservation of the forest."

In conclusion, the willingness of local community members to engage in PFM depends on a range of individual and group characteristics, including socio-economic factors, cultural values, community cohesion, and the participation of women. Efforts to promote PFM initiatives must take into account these factors and work to foster trust, build partnerships, and promote sustainable management practices that benefit both the community and the environment.

 6.1.4 Research Question 4

“Do the local community members have knowledge about tree regeneration techniques?” 

The survival and growth of indigenous tree species depend on effective regeneration techniques, which ensure the continued presence of these vital resources for local communities. As such, it is essential to assess the knowledge and practices of local community members regarding tree regeneration techniques. 

According to a study conducted in Kwale County, many local community members possess knowledge about tree regeneration techniques, which has been passed down from generation to generation. For instance, Mwanajuma, a community member, stated, "Our ancestors taught us how to propagate indigenous tree species through seed collection and planting. We have been using these techniques for generations, and they have helped us to maintain a steady supply of trees for our daily needs." Similarly, another community member, Said, added, "We know that pruning and other management practices can help to promote tree growth and increase the yield of fruits, nuts, and other products. We have been using these techniques for a long time, and they have helped us to maintain the health and productivity of our forests." 

These testimonials suggest that local community members in Kinango Constituency possess knowledge about tree regeneration techniques and have been using them to maintain the health and productivity of local ecosystems. This knowledge is often closely tied to cultural and spiritual practices, reflecting the importance of indigenous trees in local communities' heritage and identity. However, despite this knowledge, there are still challenges to effective tree regeneration, including deforestation, climate change, and over exploitation. These factors threaten the survival and growth of indigenous tree species, making it essential to promote sustainable practices and conservation efforts. 

Efforts to promote tree regeneration and sustainable use practices require a range of approaches, including education and outreach programs, community-based forest management, and the integration of indigenous knowledge into conservation and development planning. Such initiatives can empower local communities to take an active role in preserving their cultural and ecological heritage while promoting sustainable development and resilience.

In conclusion, local community members in Kinango Constituency possess knowledge about tree regeneration techniques, which has been passed down from generation to generation. This knowledge reflects the importance of indigenous trees in local communities' heritage and identity and highlights the critical role of these trees in maintaining the health and productivity of local ecosystems. Efforts to promote sustainable practices and conservation efforts are essential to ensuring the continued presence of these vital resources for generations to come. 

6.2 Recommendations for Further Research

1. It will be important to further explore the potential for incorporating traditional knowledge of forest management into formal forest management plans. 

2. The study highlights the importance of local knowledge in sustainable forest management and the potential for community-led initiatives to promote reforestation and conservation efforts. However, the study did not delve into how this local knowledge can be integrated into official forest management policies and practices. 

3. The potential for collaborative forest management between local communities and government agencies. This study could explore the challenges and opportunities for integrating traditional knowledge of forest management into formal policies and practices, as well as the potential benefits of such an approach in promoting sustainable forest management. 

4. To explore the ways in which local communities could be engaged in the development of forest management plans. By involving local communities in decision-making processes, it may be possible to incorporate traditional knowledge into formal policies and practices. This could include participatory mapping exercises, community consultations, and other forms of engagement to ensure that local voices are heard and their knowledge is valued. 

5. Another important aspect of this research could be to assess the effectiveness of community-led initiatives in promoting sustainable forest management. This could involve examining the impact of community-led reforestation projects, the use of traditional forest management techniques, and the involvement of local people in monitoring and conservation efforts. By assessing the effectiveness of these initiatives, it may be possible to identify best practices that can be integrated into formal policies and practices. 

6. The potential impact of collaborative forest management on local livelihoods and community empowerment. This could involve examining the ways in which community-led initiatives can provide economic benefits to local people through sustainable harvesting of forest products and the development of ecotourism initiatives. It could also involve examining the ways in which community-led initiatives can empower local people by giving them a greater voice in decision-making processes and the ability to shape their own futures. 

In conclusion, further research on the integration of traditional knowledge into formal forest management plans is essential in promoting sustainable forest management. By exploring the potential for collaborative forest management between local communities and government agencies, assessing the effectiveness of community-led initiatives, and examining the potential impact on local livelihoods and community empowerment, it may be possible to identify best practices that can be integrated into formal policies and practices. Ultimately, this could lead to more effective and sustainable forest management practices that benefit both people and the environment. 

6.3 Limitations

Although this study has provided valuable insights into the importance of traditional knowledge in promoting sustainable forest management, it faced the limitations listed below.

1) Limited scope: The study focused only on one constituency in Kwale County, which may limit the generalization of the findings to other regions or contexts. The study could have included other constituencies or counties to provide a broader understanding of traditional knowledge of forest management in Kenya.

2) Sample size: The sample size of the study was relatively small, which could limit the generalization of the findings. A larger sample size could have provided more comprehensive insights into the extent of local knowledge of forest management and the potential for community-led initiatives to promote sustainable forest management. 

3) Self-selection bias: The study relied on community members who self-selected to participate in the study, which could introduce bias into the findings. Participants who were more knowledgeable or had stronger opinions on the topic may have been more likely to participate, which could affect the generalization of the findings. 

4) Lack of quantitative data: The study relied primarily on qualitative data, which may limit the ability to draw broad conclusions about the effectiveness of traditional knowledge in promoting sustainable forest management. The use of quantitative data could have provided more robust evidence to support the study's findings. 

5) Limited government perspective: The study focused primarily on the perspectives of local communities and did not explore the perspectives of government agencies responsible for formal forest management. A more comprehensive study could have explored the perspectives of these agencies to identify potential barriers and opportunities for the integration of traditional knowledge into formal policies and practices. 

Overall, while the study provides valuable insights into the importance of traditional knowledge in promoting sustainable forest management, the limitations identified above suggest the need for further research to expand the scope, sample size, and range of data sources to develop a more comprehensive understanding of this topic. 

6.4 Delimitations

Delimitations are factors that may have restricted or limited the study's scope or generalization. These are listed below. 

1. Geographical location: The study was limited to Kinango Constituency in Kwale County, Kenya. Therefore, the findings may not be of generalization to other regions or countries, which may have different ecological, social, and cultural contexts that influence traditional knowledge of forest management. 

2. Time frame: The study was conducted over a short period, and the findings may not reflect long-term trends or changes in traditional knowledge of forest management. A longer-term study may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence the sustainability of community-led initiatives in forest management. 

3. Language limitations: The study was conducted in English, which may have excluded potential participants who were not proficient in English. Additionally, some participants may have had difficulty expressing their ideas or knowledge in English, which may have affected the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the data collected. 

4. Limited participation: The study relied on community members who volunteered to participate, which may have excluded individuals who were not interested or could not participate due to time constraints or other reasons. Therefore, the sample may not be representative of the broader population, and the findings may not be generalizable to all members of the community. 

5. Limited data sources: The study relied primarily on data collected from interviews and focus group discussions, which may have limited the scope and depth of the findings. The use of other data sources, such as surveys or participant observation, may have provided more comprehensive insights into the factors that influence traditional knowledge of forest management. 

Overall, these delimitations suggest that the findings of the study should be interpreted within the context of the study's limitations and may not be generalizable to other regions or contexts. Future research may need to address these limitations to provide a more comprehensive understanding of traditional knowledge of forest management and its role in promoting sustainable forest management.

 6.5 Conclusion

This study provides valuable insights into the role of traditional knowledge in promoting sustainable forest management. The findings of the study suggest that local communities possess valuable knowledge and skills related to forest management, which could be integrated into formal policies and practices to promote sustainable forest management. 

The study reveals that the local communities in Kinango Constituency, Kwale County, have been practicing traditional forest management techniques for many generations. These techniques include selective logging, controlled grazing, and the use of traditional medicine to control pests and diseases. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of traditional forest regeneration techniques, such as seed collection and seed treatment, which have been passed down through generations and have been found to be effective in promoting forest regeneration. 

Furthermore, the study demonstrates that community-led initiatives can play a critical role in promoting sustainable forest management. The community-led initiatives, such as community-based organizations and forest user groups, have been successful in promoting forest conservation and regeneration by involving local communities in forest management activities. The study also highlights the importance of collaboration between local communities and government agencies in promoting sustainable forest management. 

However, the study also identifies several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. For example, the study was limited to one constituency in Kwale County, which may limit the generalization of the findings to other regions or contexts. Additionally, the study relied primarily on qualitative data, which may limit the ability to draw broad conclusions about the effectiveness of traditional knowledge in promoting sustainable forest management. 

In conclusion, the study provides valuable insights into the potential for community-led initiatives to promote sustainable forest management and highlights the need for collaboration between local communities and government agencies to achieve this goal. However, the limitations identified in the study suggest the need for further research to expand the scope, sample size, and range of data sources to develop a more comprehensive understanding of traditional knowledge of forest management. Overall, the study underscores the importance of recognizing and integrating traditional knowledge into formal policies and practices to promote sustainable forest management.

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